Osmond Chia and Faisal Irfani

The haze has long been a recurring problem, and has been weighing on economies across the region for decades.

This year, the fires in Indonesia could cost the country nearly 30 trillion rupiah (£1.3bn; $1.7bn) in economic losses, a study by the Center of Economic and Law Studies estimated.

The losses are a result of damage to burned assets as well as disruptions to economic activity, including trade, agriculture, and the food and accommodation sectors.

The health-related costs could also exceed 100 trillion rupiah, the research suggested.

In Malaysia, researchers estimate the haze has cost anywhere up to 400m ringgit (£74m; $98m) in healthcare fees in previous episodes.

Malaysian manufacturing groups have said poor air quality disrupts outdoor works and adds costs to companies that need to buy heavy-duty air filtration systems and other equipment.

Studies by Singapore's Nanyang Technological University estimated that one of the island-state's worst haze episodes in 2015 cost each resident about S$468 (£276.18; $365.89), with total economic losses reaching more than S$1.8bn nationwide.

Liza Tambunan
Jakarta Correspondent

Image source, Getty Images

A trip to Palangkaraya city used to be routine for rural residents like Lola Macitri, who lives about two hours' drive away in Pulang Pisau Regency.

Now that journey has become much riskier, as they have to brave stretches of toxic smog. When they finally get to the city, they are faced with the rising prices of food and other supplies.

Despite the haze, Lola says people are still working outdoors on their farms and carrying on with daily activities.

"If you ask whether we are afraid of the health risks, of course we are. But where else can we go?" she says.

"Yes, we are definitely afraid, but what choice do we have? We just have to endure and stay strong through this situation because there is simply no other option."

Indonesian lawmaker Junico Siahaan has urged the government to take a more conciliatory approach to complaints from neighbouring countries affected by transboundary haze.

“The government should respond with humility, not become defensive. When we are wrong, we should bow our heads and apologise,” he told today, according to Kompas.

He also called for stronger regional diplomacy, including following-up on Singapore's offer of assistance and cooperation on firefighting efforts.

The comments came after Singapore issued notices to at least 10 Indonesian companies suspected of links to fires and controversial remarks by an Indonesian official about their country "supplying oxygen" to neighbouring countries.

The lawmaker warned that the prolonged fire and haze crisis has become an international issue that could affect Indonesia's reputation and trust among regional partners.

Image source, Getty Images

Student protesters across Indonesia are calling on the government to declare this year's forest and land fires a national disaster, with a major rally planned in Jakarta later today.

The peatland fires that have unleashed toxic haze across South East Asia are the latest grievance of students protesting alleged misrule by President Prabowo Subianto, who marks his second year in office this week.

The protesters say a national disaster declaration will unlock emergency funds and allow a faster, more coordinated response from the central government. Many are also calling for tougher action against companies linked to the fires.

The demand has already been raised in Palangka Raya, the epicentre of the fires, where students and community groups protested on 15 and 19 October

In Semarang, Central Java, students staged a rally on 16 October, saying the fires had affected multiple provinces and caused serious health and economic impacts.

Liza Tambunan
Jakarta Correspondent

Image source, BBC/Haryo Wirawan

I spoke to Natari Victoria, a 22-year-old visitor at a community health centre in Central Kalimantan.

She said she had been coughing since the wildfires broke out and the haze has given her a sore throat. "I do wear a mask, but I still got sick anyway," she said.

It's not just Natari. Many in her family have also been affected by the haze.

"I have young cousins, including babies, they are coughing too. It’s really taking a toll on them," she said.

Julianna Khan
Live reporter

Image source, Getty Images

Taufiq Mustakim, a 25-year-old skateboarder in Malaysia's Johor state, tells the BBC this year’s haze situation is "10 out of 10 bad".

​"It interferes with my breathing when I’m skateboarding, jogging, or working out," Taufiq says, adding that he often deals with "headaches and wheezing when breathing".

The yearly occurrence has left him feeling helpless and frustrated, especially at the companies that have been linked to the wildfires in Indonesia.

"It seems like forest burning happens every single year, doesn't it?" he says.

"Why prioritize business interests to the point where it causes trouble for others?"

For now, Taufiq's main way of coping with the haze is simply putting on a mask and cutting back on outdoor activities altogether.

Image source, Palembang City Government

Indonesia has been experimenting with various methods to quell the stubborn fires. Firefighting teams in South Sumatra, for example, tested a Brazilian fire suppressant known as Realiza Anti Chamas, a powder that's mixed with water before it gets sprayed onto the burning area.

Brazilian firm Grupo Realiza claims the product is 10 times more effective in tackling fires than if water alone were used, but this has not been independently verified, reports say.

Last week, it said it scattered 2.4 tonnes of dry ice over South Sumatra in its attempt to disperse the thick haze. While dry ice does not get rid of the haze, proponents say it helps disperse trapped haze particles, allowing them to rise and thus improving visibility.

The use of dry ice could be extended to other provinces, authorities say.

In August, Indonesia also said it's been studying the potential of cassava flour as a firefighting aid, but the National Research and Innovation Agency said at the time they were still looking into how it can be deployed for large-scale use.

Julianna Khan
Live reporter

Image source, Getty Images

Lily Yasmin, a 19-year-old student who works with young children, tells the BBC the haze is taking a visible toll on the kids, from persistent coughs to skin disease.

​"I notice children with more sensitive skin or eczema having more frequent flare-ups, and some experiencing swelling of the eyes when exposed to open air," Lily says.

Singaporean authorities say the country's public preschools will remain open even as the air quality plunges. They say this will support parents who cannot work from home or find alternative childcare arrangements.

Schools are also taking measures to protect children from the haze, such as introducing indoor activities and installing air purifiers in classrooms.

"Some children I observed have been required to stay within the centre, especially if they have existing respiratory issues or allergic reactions to dust particles in the air," Yasmin says.

Image source, Getty Images

The haze and wildfires are taking centre stage in multiple protests taking place in Indonesia today, which have been planned to coincide with the second anniversary of President Prabowo Subianto's administration.

Greenpeace Indonesia is staging a protest in central Jakarta, demanding the government do more to tackle the climate crisis, naming the haze as a clear example of how ecological challenges can harm people's health and economy.

Students in several cities, including Jakarta, are also staging their own demonstrations. They have several demands, including tackling corruption and lowering the costs of education and healthcare.

But most urgently, they want the government to declare the wildfires a national disaster and hold corporations accountable for the crisis.

Koh Ewe
Live page reporter

Image source, Getty Images

Indonesian authorities say they are currently investigating around 100 cases involving companies linked to the wildfires.

But it's not just Indonesian companies. Some of the cases under investigation involve foreign investors, authorities said.

This is an acknowledgement of what has been a growing talking point in the conversation around Indonesia's wildfires: the role of foreign companies in the complex corporate networks behind the swathes of burning land.

Recent reports published by environmental groups Greenpeace and Walhi have identified companies based in Singapore and Malaysia as allegedly linked to the plots of burning land in Indonesia, via their local subsidiaries.

First Resources, a Singapore-based palm oil company named in the Greenpeace report, told the BBC in a statement that it maintained a strict "zero burning policy" and the unusually strong El Niño this year has heightened fire risks.

It also said that the identification of a wildfire hotspot in a land area doesn't necessarily mean the fire originated from there.

Another company named by Greenpeace, the Malaysian plantation group Kuala Lumpur Kepong, said in a statement that a "majority" of the fires originated from beyond its concession area and had all been extinguished.

The BBC has reached out to other companies identified in the reports - but did not receive replies. Meanwhile, some of the companies named in the Walhi report do not have publicly listed contacts.

Image source, Getty Images

The haze crisis has affected 2,604 domestic flights in Indonesia between 11 August and 19 October, the Transportation Ministry has said.

Of these, 1,129 flights were delayed, while 1,420 were cancelled or postponed. The ministry also recorded 23 flight diversions, six return-to-base flights, and 26 flights that departed ahead of schedule as airlines responded to reduced visibility caused by haze.

The disruption has spread well beyond the worst-hit fire zones in Sumatra and Kalimantan.

Between 13 and 17 October, haze-related flight disturbances were reported across eastern Indonesia, including Sulawesi, Maluku, North Maluku and Papua.

Airports affected included those in Palu, Ternate, Ambon, Timika, Sorong, Pontianak, Pekanbaru and Palembang, highlighting the nationwide reach of one of Indonesia's most severe haze episodes in years.

Image source, Getty Images

Public anger is simmering in Malaysia, where residents have spent weeks enduring toxic haze drifting from Indonesia's wildfires.

On the worst days, schools were closed for several days and popular tourist sites were obscured by a blanket of smog.

All this has given rise to a wave of anger among Malaysians, who are airing their frustrations about the yearly occurrence on social media.

Some lawmakers have also spoken out, saying Indonesia needs to be treated "as an outcast in the region" and questioning why Malaysians should be impacted by "irresponsible actions beyond our borders".

But the official response has been noticeably more subdued - as authorities navigate the ticklish topic with its neighbour and longtime ally.

Malaysian President Anwar Ibrahim said last week that the government had "done everything we can" to engage Indonesia on the issue. Malaysia has offered to help Indonesia tackle its wildfires - though Indonesia has not taken it up.

For now, Malaysia says it would broach the issue through diplomatic channels, without threatening bilateral ties with Indonesia. The haze crisis is set to be discussed at a meeting of South East Asian ministers next month.

Adan
Reporting from Palangka Raya

As thick haze from forest and land fires continues to choke Palangka Raya, one of the worst-hit cities in Central Kalimantan, residents have been seeking refuge inside "clean air shelters" set up by local volunteers.

The RAKAT coalition, a network of civil society groups, has been running two such shelters since August, offering facilities including air purifiers, oxygen, nebulisers and basic medicines. The shelters are open daily in the evenings.

Coordinator Agung Sesa said the initiative was launched to support residents affected by the worsening haze, particularly vulnerable groups such as children and older people.

The shelters receive around 10 to 15 visitors a day, many seeking help for breathing difficulties, persistent coughs and eye irritation.

"Most complaints involve shortness of breath, coughing and sore eyes," Agung said, adding that some visitors have required urgent treatment for respiratory conditions. Volunteers are seeking donations of medicines, vitamins, milk and oxygen supplies.

This morning our team observed residents in Palangkaraya, the capital of Central Kalimantan, going about their daily activities. This despite visible haze and the air quality sitting at "very unhealthy" levels, according to monitoring site IQAir.

Image source, BBC/Haryo Wirawan

Image source, BBC/Haryo Wirawan

Image source, BBC/Haryo Wirawan

Image source, BBC/Haryo Wirawan

Image source, AFP via Getty Images

Singapore has issued legal notices to 10 companies over the fires in Indonesia that it believes have contributed to haze in the region.

The firms are being ordered to halt burning on their land in Indonesia and furnish Singapore with their plans to put out the fires.

Investigations show that some of the recent haze come from fires on land owned by these firms in Indonesia, Singapore's National Environment Agency said.

The companies listed are:

1. PT Bumi Andalas Permai
2. PT Bumi Mekar Hijau
3. PT Paramitra Mulia Langgeng
4. PT Sumatera Alam Anugerah
5. PT SBA Wood Industries
6. PT Hutan Lestari Raya
7. PT Bangkanesia
8. PT Buana Megatama Jaya
9. PT Mananjung Hayak
10. PT Baratama Putra Perkasa

Singapore Prime Minister Lawrence Wong said in a statement on Monday that his government will "pursue all available legal and regulatory avenues" to hold those responsible for the fires to account.

Authorities in the region are facing growing pressure to tackle the haze, but some observers warn that these measures could carry diplomatic risks.

Image source, MDDI

Singapore issued a sharp warning to companies blamed for the haze, calling on them to stop burning and take action to contain the fires.

Senior Minister K Shanmugam told the media on Monday that Singapore is prepared to use "every legal and regulatory lever at our disposal" to pursue the firms responsible.

"They may think that it is hard to get evidence, and that they may think that they can escape scrutiny. But they should not underestimate the Singapore government's determination to act," said Shanmugam, who oversees the national security matters.

The island-state issued has issued legal notices to 10 firms linked to the fires, ordering them to halt burning on their land in Indonesia and to put out the flames.

Liza Tambunan
Reporting from Palangka Raya, Central Kalimantan

Image source, BBC/Liza Tambunan

I am currently in Palangka Raya, one of the areas worst affected by the forest and land fires that have been burning across Indonesia.

When I looked out the window this morning, I saw a thick haze blanketing the city. Visibility is limited. I cannot see very far out into the distance. Trees across the road are shrouded in smog.

The smoke is so thick I can look at the sun and see a small yellow, dimly lit circular object in the sky - almost like looking at a light fixture on the ceiling of my hotel room.

As I stepped outside onto the balcony, the stench of burnt earth immediately hit my nostrils. It felt like it was burning.

This is the reality that people have been living with here in Palangka Raya and its surrounding areas. Some have no choice but to continue to go on with their lives without an adequate mask, putting their health at risk with every breath they take.

Health officials I’ve spoken to here say there’s been approximately a 25% spike in respiratory cases in recent months attributed to the fires and haze.

Osmond Chia
Business reporter

Image source, LightRocket via Getty Images

Jakarta has come under growing international pressure to do more to tackle the fires and the industry around it, straining ties in the region.

Earlier this month, the head of Indonesia's Government Communications Agency Syahganda Nainggolan defended his country, saying: "We're not just sending over the haze."

"When there's no haze, we send oxygen. The oxygen from Singapore and Malaysia is from our forests, right?" Nainggolan said.

Singapore Senior Minister K Shanmugam on Monday said the remarks were disappointing and that the comments were "not right" when people in the region are suffering from the haze.

He added that he believed the view was not shared by others in the Indonesian government and welcomed President Prabowo Subianto's efforts to tackle the crisis.

While Singapore has issued legal notices to firms linked to the the burning behind the haze, Malaysia has downplayed the need for such an approach, opting for diplomatic channels to address the issue for now.

Indonesia has not yet accepted offers of help from Singapore and Malaysia.

Liza Tambunan
Reporting from Palangka Raya, Central Kalimantan

In the car, our driver Yusron tells me he hasn’t encountered prolonged haze like this before.

The 57-year-old Banjarmasin resident recalled devastating fires in 1997 and 2015, noting it was the monsoon rains that finally extinguished the flames back then.

"We’re just waiting for the rainy season to put an end to this, but this year it seems to have been delayed," Yusron said.

Relief may be delayed, as Indonesia’s weather agency reported a shorter rainy season starting in November, a month later than forecast.

Back on the road, the haze worsens as we approach Palangka Raya, thickening and glowing with a light yellow tint. Visibility is limited, forcing Yusron to slow down.

The toxic smog shrouded the sunlight so heavily that it got dark early. By the time we arrived in Palangka Raya around 18:00, it was already pitch black.

Image source, Getty Images

Schools in Malaysia's southernmost state of Johor will remain closed for a second week, authorities say, noting that pollutant index readings remain at "concerning levels".

Cases of asthma and respiratory tract infections have gone up by 20% over the past week, the state's education committee chairman Muhammad Naqib Md Ghazali said on Sunday.

Meanwhile, students in the capital city of Kuala Lumpur and five other Malaysian states headed back to classrooms on Monday after a week of school closures.